Sudan Under Siege: How Fifth-Generation Warfare and Sanctions Engineered a Nation’s Collapse

What you will find in this article: table of content

1. Introduction
2. What is Fifth-Generation Warfare (5GW)?
3. Evolution of 5GW: From Soft Power to Strategic Subversion
4. The Geopolitical Importance of Sudan
5. A Chronology of U.S. and Western Sanctions on Sudan (1983–2024)
6. Economic Warfare: The Systematic Collapse of Sudan’s Economy
7. Psychological Operations and Media Framing
8. Proxy Forces and the Empowerment of Warlordism
9. The Role of the UAE and Foreign Private Interests
10. Diplomatic Isolation and Lawfare
11. Impact on Sudanese Society and Governance
12. Humanitarian Consequences and Internal Fragmentation
13. The RSF: A Case Study in 5GW Proxy Creation
14. Information Control and the Silencing of Sudanese Voices
15. The Aftermath: 2023–2025 Civil War and the Failed Peace Process
16. Comparative Cases: Iraq, Libya, and Syria
17. The Global South and the Future of 5GW
18. Recommendations for Rebuilding Sovereignty
19. Conclusion
20. References and Notes

1. Introduction

Sudan—a land rich in history, gold, oil, and culture—has in recent decades become a tragic symbol of collapse, civil war, and foreign interference. From the secession of South Sudan to the ongoing conflict between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), Sudan has been dismantled from the inside out. But what is often overlooked is that this collapse was neither accidental nor purely domestic. It is the result of a sophisticated, multi-decade campaign of destabilization rooted in the doctrines of Fifth-Generation Warfare (5GW).

While conventional wars are waged with bombs and bullets, 5GW is fought with narratives, sanctions, economic manipulation, proxy forces, and ideological subversion. This article presents a detailed examination of how Sudan became the target of a prolonged 5GW campaign, engineered largely through economic sanctions, narrative control, and the empowerment of foreign-aligned factions.

2. What is Fifth-Generation Warfare (5GW)?

Fifth-Generation Warfare is the most advanced and insidious form of conflict, where the lines between peace and war, civilian and combatant, foreign and domestic, become deliberately blurred. Unlike traditional warfare, 5GW:

• Does not require formal declarations of war.
• Is fought across multiple domains: economic, cyber, cultural, informational, and political.
• Utilizes non-state actors, media, NGOs, and international institutions as tools.
• Aims to subvert sovereignty, fracture societies, and control national narratives.

Key Tools of 5GW

5GW is designed for plausible deniability—foreign actors can influence outcomes without taking responsibility. This makes it deadlier and more enduring than conventional war.

3. Evolution of 5GW: From Soft Power to Strategic Subversion

The doctrine of 5GW evolved in the late 20th and early 21st century from the failures of traditional warfare in places like Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Western strategists began to understand that long-term influence was better achieved through control of narratives, resources, and systems rather than occupation.

In the context of Africa, this form of warfare allowed former colonial powers and new global players to reassert dominance without direct confrontation. Sudan, with its vast resources, strategic location, and history of resistance to Western policy, became a primary target.

4. The Geopolitical Importance of Sudan

Sudan is not just another African state. It is:

• The third-largest country in Africa, bordering seven nations.
• A gateway between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Rich in gold, oil, uranium, and arable land.
• Home to the Nile, the longest river in the world.
• Strategically located on the Red Sea, connecting the Gulf to East Africa.

Control over Sudan means influence over regional trade routes, energy corridors, and political alliances. This geopolitical significance made Sudan a key battleground for fifth-generation tactics.

5. A Chronology of U.S. and Western Sanctions on Sudan (1983–2024)

1983–1993: Prelude to Isolation

• Civil War reignites in the South after President Nimeiri imposes Islamic law.
• U.S. starts reducing support, citing religious and human rights concerns.

1993–1997: Sudan Labeled a State Sponsor of Terrorism

• Sudan accused of hosting terrorist figures, including Osama bin Laden.
• Added to the U.S. State Sponsors of Terrorism list.
• Economic pressure begins: loss of aid, loan freezes, and diplomatic isolation.

1997: Executive Order 13067

• Comprehensive sanctions imposed:
  • Full trade embargo.
  • Ban on financial transactions.
  • Sudanese assets in the U.S. frozen.

2006: Executive Order 13400 – Darfur Sanctions

• Sanctions expanded under the guise of “Darfur genocide.”
• Sanctions included:
  • Travel bans.
  • Arms embargoes.
  • Blocking of companies associated with Sudanese officials.

2011: South Sudan Secedes

• International pressure leads to the division of Sudan, depriving it of 75% of oil reserves.
• Promised debt relief and sanctions removal never materialize.

2017–2020: Partial Relief, Conditionality

• Sanctions “lifted” on paper but with numerous preconditions:
  • Counterterrorism cooperation.
  • Compensation for terrorist victims.
  • Normalization with Israel.
• Sudan pays over $300 million in settlements yet remains blacklisted.

2021–2024: Return to Sanctions Post-Coup

• After SAF takes power, Western aid halted, military cooperation suspended.
• Sudan again isolated from international finance, despite worsening humanitarian crisis.

6. Economic Warfare: The Systematic Collapse of Sudan’s Economy

The impact of sanctions on Sudan’s economy has been catastrophic and deliberate.

Key Effects of Economic Siege:

• Collapse of banking sector: Sudan was cut off from SWIFT and dollar-based systems.
• Hyperinflation: Prices of basic goods soared, reaching over 300% annually.
• Currency devaluation: The Sudanese Pound lost over 95% of its value in two decades.
• Brain drain: Skilled professionals fled in search of stability.
• Infrastructure stagnation: No access to loans, technology, or partnerships for development.
• Agricultural decline: Despite fertile land, Sudan became dependent on food imports.

Sudan’s GDP under Sanctions

Despite internal reforms and changes in leadership, Sudan remained trapped in an artificial state of economic paralysis, the hallmark of 5GW

7. Psychological Operations and Media Framing

One of the most powerful tools of 5GW is narrative manipulation—the use of media, NGOs, and academic institutions to create a specific image of a country or its leadership. In Sudan’s case, international media consistently portrayed the nation as a pariah state, ruled by extremists and human rights abusers.

Key Tactics Used Against Sudan:

• Selective Reporting: Western outlets amplified human rights abuses while ignoring progress or Western complicity in creating crises (e.g., South Sudan’s oil theft).
• NGO Amplification: Western-funded NGOs generated reports that became the basis for sanctions, many based on unverified or politicized data.
• Demonization of National Leaders: Leaders like Omar al-Bashir were isolated diplomatically, while groups with Western ties were hailed as “pro-democracy,” regardless of their own corruption or violence.
• Hollywood & Pop Culture: Films, documentaries, and celebrity activism (e.g., George Clooney’s work on Darfur) further entrenched the perception of Sudan as a perpetual conflict zone.

Impact:

This narrative campaign made it politically impossible for Western governments to lift sanctions or support Sudanese sovereignty—even when Sudan took steps toward reform. Moreover, it delegitimized national identity, causing many Sudanese to feel detached from the global community.

8. Proxy Forces and the Empowerment of Warlordism

5GW thrives in fragmented societies. In Sudan, external actors—especially the UAE and Western security agencies—played a pivotal role in creating and empowering proxies such as the Rapid Support Forces (RSF).

Origins of the RSF:

• Originally part of the Janjaweed militia used during the Darfur conflict.
• Later rebranded and formally integrated into Sudan’s security structure.
• Given international legitimacy during the transitional period (2019–2021).

Foreign Empowerment:

• UAE provided direct financial support and logistics.
• Western silence or indirect cooperation with RSF as a counterbalance to the SAF.
• Mercenary deployment: RSF fighters deployed to Libya and Yemen as paid mercenaries on behalf of the UAE and Saudi Arabia.

Consequences:

• RSF became a state within a state, with its own revenue streams (gold smuggling, human trafficking).
• Eventually turned on the Sudanese state in April 2023, leading to a catastrophic civil war.
• Represents a textbook example of how proxies are used in 5GW to destroy from within.

9. The Role of the UAE and Foreign Private Interests

The UAE has emerged as one of the most aggressive foreign actors in Sudan, aligning with the broader 5GW doctrine to extend influence through non-military means.

Key Methods:

• Gold Smuggling: UAE companies extracted gold via RSF-controlled mines, depriving Sudan of billions in revenue.
• Private Military Companies (PMCs): UAE-linked PMCs trained RSF fighters and provided advanced weaponry.
• Diplomatic Interference: Pushed for RSF inclusion in international negotiations and blocked pro-SAF diplomats abroad.
• Media Control: Funded media outlets to promote RSF narratives and discredit Sudanese nationalists.

Endgame:

The UAE’s strategy appears to be the partition of Sudan into pliable micro-states, each serving specific economic or strategic interests. This mirrors strategies used in Yemen and Libya.

10. Diplomatic Isolation and Lawfare

Sudan has faced not just economic sanctions, but diplomatic warfare, where international legal and institutional mechanisms were weaponized.

Mechanisms of Lawfare:

• International Criminal Court (ICC): Issued arrest warrants against Bashir and other Sudanese officials, while ignoring U.S. war crimes or allies’ abuses.
• UN Resolutions: Imposed arms embargoes and travel bans on Sudanese entities but not on RSF leaders post-2023.
• Debt Diplomacy: Sudan was denied debt relief unless it normalized ties with Israel and paid massive compensations.

Outcome:

Sudan became trapped in a legal labyrinth, punished for historical sins while new violations by external actors went unchecked. This asymmetry is a cornerstone of 5GW: destroy legitimacy, then deny access to the systems required for recovery.

11. Impact on Sudanese Society and Governance

The combined effect of sanctions, warlordism, and narrative warfare led to a total erosion of the Sudanese state.

Governance Breakdown:

• Civil service hollowed out by brain drain and budget cuts.
• Rule of law replaced by militia rule and corruption.
• Education and healthcare sectors collapsed under inflation and foreign currency shortages.

Social Fragmentation:

• Ethnic and tribal divisions deepened as resources became scarce.
• Urban-rural divides intensified due to unequal access to aid and development.
• Young people radicalized or demoralized, leading to brain drain or conscription into militias.

12. Humanitarian Consequences and Internal Fragmentation

Sudan today is the epicenter of one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises, a direct consequence of long-term 5GW strategies.

Staggering Statistics:

• Over 12.5 million displaced internally and across borders.
• 75% of hospitals destroyed or non-functional.
• Famine conditions emerging in Khartoum, Darfur, and Kordofan.
• Aid routes blocked by RSF or embargoed by Western bureaucracies.

NGOs and Humanitarian Subversion:

• Selective aid distribution: Areas under RSF control received aid faster due to international coordination.
• Western NGOs functioned as gatekeepers, often prioritizing politically favorable populations.
• Surveillance through aid: Collection of biometric data and personal info under the guise of aid further eroded privacy.

13. The RSF: A Case Study in 5GW Proxy Creation

The Rapid Support Forces (RSF) exemplify how Fifth-Generation Warfare operates through proxy creation, empowerment, and eventual state takeover. The RSF’s evolution from a loose militia to a dominant paramilitary actor is not just a Sudanese tragedy—it is a textbook 5GW tactic.

The Militia-turned-State Actor

• Originally, the RSF emerged from the Janjaweed, a tribal-based militia accused of atrocities in Darfur during the early 2000s.
• In 2013, the Sudanese government attempted to institutionalize the RSF under the National Intelligence and Security Services (NISS).
• This move backfired. The RSF gained training, weapons, and international attention—and developed parallel chains of command.
• By 2017–2019, the RSF had become financially independent via gold smuggling and foreign contracts, especially through UAE involvement.

Foreign Sponsorship and Media Legitimacy

• The UAE used the RSF in Libya and Yemen, treating them as a private military contractor rather than a Sudanese national unit.
• The European Union, while condemning RSF abuses, covertly funded migration control programs that relied on RSF patrols to stop African migrants.
• Western and Gulf media increasingly normalized RSF’s role as a “security force” despite their roots in ethnic cleansing.

Culmination in Coup and Civil War

• On April 15, 2023, the RSF launched a full-scale war against the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF).
• The group seized state institutions, looted infrastructure, and initiated a sectarian and economic war.
• Their power was artificially inflated through external support, weapon flows, and diplomatic cover—a perfect demonstration of 5GW’s capability to create warlords as sovereign alternatives.

14. Information Control and the Silencing of Sudanese Voices

Another hallmark of 5GW is the destruction or control of information flows. In Sudan, this occurred through a combination of media monopolization, NGO censorship, and social media warfare.

The Role of Foreign Media

• International media rarely platformed Sudanese voices, especially those defending national sovereignty.
• Instead, Western journalists relied heavily on NGO and UN narratives, often drawn from foreign-funded activist networks.
• Arabic-language media like Al Jazeera and Sky News Arabia, backed by Gulf states, amplified RSF narratives, portraying them as protectors of democracy.

Social Media Warfare

• Disinformation campaigns flooded platforms like Twitter and Facebook with pro-RSF propaganda, sometimes using AI-generated images and videos.
• Hashtag movements and influencers—many trained or funded abroad—focused solely on SAF abuses while ignoring RSF atrocities.
• Meanwhile, Sudanese nationalists were de-platformed, shadowbanned, or accused of “hate speech” when calling for unity or exposing RSF war crimes.

Suppression of Independent Journalism

• Sudanese journalists who challenged the Western or Gulf narratives faced:
  • Arrest or exile.
  • Loss of funding as local outlets were shut down or co-opted.
  • Smear campaigns branding them as “Islamist,” “racist,” or “genocidal” to discredit their credibility internationally.

15. The Aftermath: 2023–2025 Civil War and the Failed Peace Process

The RSF-led war against Sudanese state institutions plunged the country into a new level of collapse, which was enabled—and then neglected—by the very international actors who claimed to champion peace.

Humanitarian Catastrophe

• Over 15,000 civilians killed by RSF and affiliated militias in Darfur, Khartoum, and Kordofan.
• Massive urban destruction, with entire neighborhoods razed.
• The Sudanese government lost control of more than 60% of its territory at one point, despite international recognition.

The UAE’s Role in the War

• Satellite evidence, UN reports, and intelligence leaks all pointed to the UAE as the key arms supplier to the RSF.
• Despite this, no serious sanctions or diplomatic penalties were imposed on the UAE or RSF leadership.
• The U.S., EU, and UK remained silent or merely issued symbolic condemnations.

The Doha and Jeddah “Peace Talks”

• These talks deliberately excluded Sudanese civic, tribal, and religious leaders who opposed RSF violence.
• Instead, they invited RSF-aligned figures and exiled opposition leaders from Western cities.
• The goal seemed less about restoring Sudan’s unity and more about legitimizing partition or external control.

16. Comparative Cases: Iraq, Libya, and Syria

Sudan’s experience under 5GW echoes similar tactics used in Iraq, Libya, and Syria—each case marked by:

Common Themes

• Sanctions that destroy civilian capacity while sparing armed proxies or friendly regimes.
• Media demonization of nationalist leaders, often followed by military or proxy intervention.
• Weaponization of civil society and humanitarian aid to reward compliant factions and punish patriotic ones.
• Fragmentation as the final goal—turning nation-states into weak confederations, tribal cantons, or failed states.

How Sudan’s Case Is Unique

• Unlike Libya and Syria, Sudan was cooperative with Western powers at various stages (e.g., on counterterrorism, normalizing with Israel).
• However, Sudan was punished not for what it did, but for what it represented: a large, resource-rich, strategically located African country striving for sovereignty outside Western or Gulf control.

17. The Global South and the Future of 5GW

Sudan’s experience is a cautionary tale for the rest of the Global South. The age of open invasion is over. Now, economic blackmail, narrative warfare, and proxy militias are the new tools of empire.

Key Lessons:

• Sovereignty is not enough if narrative, finance, and cyber domains are not protected.
• National cohesion is critical. Ethnic, regional, or ideological divisions are 5GW’s main gateway.
• Neutrality is no shield. Countries that refuse to align with great powers are often the first to be targeted by 5GW.

Rising Countermeasures:

• Countries like Ethiopia, Iran, Russia, and even some Latin American states are developing defensive 5GW doctrines.
• These include:
  • Digital sovereignty laws to control information spaces.
  • Multipolar diplomacy to avoid dependence on Western or Gulf regimes.
  • Military-civil integration to prevent the rise of unaccountable paramilitary structures.

18. Recommendations for Rebuilding Sudan’s Sovereignty

While the destruction inflicted on Sudan is immense, it is not irreversible. Strategic recovery from 5GW requires a new doctrine of national restoration.

1. Strategic Communication and Narrative Sovereignty

• Build independent Sudanese media platforms in Arabic, English, and local dialects.
• Expose the foreign role in RSF crimes and humanitarian abuses.
• Reframe Sudan not as a failed state but as a target of foreign 5GW aggression.

2. Economic Independence

• Prioritize Sudanese gold, agriculture, and oil as pillars of national recovery.
• Ban foreign gold smuggling through firm border control.
• Develop trade partnerships with multipolar states (China, Russia, Türkiye, BRICS+).

3. Reform the Security Sector

• Dismantle warlord structures like RSF.
• Absorb non-criminal fighters into community-based defense structures.
• Ensure all armed groups report to a single civilian-led ministry of defense.

4. Rebuild Civic Infrastructure

• Prioritize education, healthcare, and judicial independence.
• Partner with trusted Global South allies for technical, non-political aid.
• Implement diaspora engagement policies to attract Sudanese expertise abroad.

5. Legal and Diplomatic Counteroffensive

• Demand international accountability for UAE and RSF war crimes.
• Form legal teams to challenge sanctions regimes at international tribunals.
• Launch a pan-African diplomatic campaign to reframe Sudan as a case of neocolonial aggression.

Conclusion

Sudan’s descent into chaos is not the result of natural disorder or internal weakness alone. It is the carefully engineered outcome of Fifth-Generation Warfare, deployed through economic siege, proxy warfare, media manipulation, and civil destabilization.

To reclaim sovereignty, Sudan must recognize the true nature of the war waged upon it. This is not just a political struggle—it is a battle for the nation’s identity, resources, and right to exist as a free people. Understanding 5GW is not optional—it is essential for any genuine liberation